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Compared to other European capitals, Rome’s subway is far less developed. For years, Rome’s 2.8 million citizens relied solely on two scant subway lines that fell short of meeting the city’s transportation needs. The two lines don’t even connect and they do not come near to the historical city centre. Being one of the oldest cities in the world, the construction of a subway poses many difficulties. Rome is built upon a labyrinth of tunnels, catacombs, vaults, and ancient sewer systems.

During the construction of the first two subway lines in the 1950’s, each excavation exposed archaeological remains and the construction had to be stopped to allow the local archaeologists to check their significance. Alternate routes had to be thought-out and determined if the discovery proved valuable to the history of the Romans.

After years of funding shortfalls and decades of debate, work began on a third subway line. Now that the third subway line is under construction, it has been marked as an “archaeological survey” from the very beginning and great care is being taken. This new line will run through the very heart of the ancient city. It will be 24 kilometers (15 miles) in length and 25 to 30 metres (80 to 100 feet) below ground.

Finally, after many centuries, archaeologists are working together with construction workers to excavate beneath Rome’s central Piazza Venezia, only a few hundred yards from the Roman Forum.
Almost immediately, excavation revealed some spectacular finds. Just below the surface, excavators discovered building remnants from the renaissance that were torn down in the late 19th century.

They dug one layer deeper and this exposed Via Flamina, a medieval road that once traversed the city. And one layer below that, they discovered a herringbone pavement from the 8th century.
Beneath the Piazza Venezia and near the ancient Forum, workers discovered a sixth-century copper factory. The early factory consisted of small ovens used to work on copper alloys. Small copper ingots discovered at the scene were sent for analysis.

Also discovered were the foundations of a 16th century Renaissance palace, a Roman tavern, and a medieval kitchen complete with pots and pans used to heat sauce.

Even though 38 active digs now line the subway construction, most of the digs have not reached the earth strata that date back to Roman times, where plenty of surprises may yet await discovery.

With every new discovery, officials must decide whether to remove, destroy, or preserve the artefacts and/or site within the subway’s structure.

Officials deemed a Roman tavern from the Middle Ages acceptable for destruction, but they eliminated an entire subway stop near the Pantheon from after workers found the base of an imperial Roman public building. This will force tourists and citizens alike to walk further to reach the new, relocated subway stop.

Further along the tunnels, workers found a “looter’s hole.” During the Middle Ages, builders would tie themselves to a rope and drop down into a well-like shaft to roam the underground to collect bricks, rock, or marble from earlier centuries to use for new construction.

There isn’t an inch of Rome that doesn’t have some artifacts below the street. In 300 A.D., one-and-a-half million people inhabited Rome. If they were to bring to light everything they and subsequent generations owned and built, the streets of Rome would all have to be eliminated and the entire city preserved as an archaeological dig.

Like the Roman ingenuity of ancient times, Romans today have found a way to preserve the old while creating the new.

For more interesting articles about Italy or to visit the home page of author Mirella Patzer, visit http://www.mirellapatzer.com and http://bestofitaly.blogspot.com

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Budget, lifestyle, room use/traffic patterns and taste are the main considerations to help you navigate a world of choice. Let’s consider each one in turn.

Flooring prices that meet your budget

Is money no object? Or are you juggling preferences and practicalities within clear spending limits? Here’s a very general rule of thumb: medium grade installed carpet or vinyl runs about one-third of the price of hardwood or ceramic installed in the same space; installed laminate is roughly two-thirds of the price. That said the variety of quality and choice is seen in the range of floor pricing–installed vinyl can be anywhere from $1.40 to $6.50 a square foot, installed laminate from $2.50 to $7.50 and installed hardwood from $9.00 to $12.00.

Of course, if you’re handy and undaunted at the thought of doing your own installation all bets are off. You can save a lot of money as long as you know what you’re doing, have the requisite time, skill, tools, patience and understanding roommates. (Remember, your work encroaches on their evenings, weekends and holiday time too.)

Brands and warranties also factor into budget considerations. Basically the longer the warranty period, the better the floor and the higher the price. You do get what you pay for so if you want flooring that will last, look for a decent warranty along with brand recognition. Recommended brands are mentioned in the lifestyle section below.

Flooring that suits your lifestyle

Are you a growing family, on your own or a couple? Do you entertain alot? Are you planning to move in the near future or putting down roots? Do you have the time and inclination to vacuum often or is the broom your best friend? Do you have pets? (In a tank or fur-bearing? Bigger than a guinea-pig? Do they get the run of the house? Indoors, outdoors or both?) The answers to these questions will give you a sense of what flooring is suited to your needs. Consider the following pros and cons.

Carpet is warm, comfortable and cushy, usually well-warrantied and stain resistant. A lower grade will show stains, wear and tear quicker than a higher quality grade, and Berber makes a great choice for kids and pets. Regular vacuuming and spot-cleaning will keep your carpet in good shape but here I have to admit to a personal bias. Vacuuming is not my hobby and I’ve yet to meet a rug that stands up well over time to furballs, pet hair and pet odours. (Though I do recommend the industrial wet/dry shop-vac if you have dogs–we had 3.) Recommended brands–Richmond, Shaw, Coronet, National. For stain resistance, look for the Stainmaster Seal.

Vinyl makes a practical cushioned floor for a bathroom, hallway or kitchen. It doesn’t hold odour and it’s easy to clean. It comes in a huge variety of patterns and looks, mimicing ceramic and even hardwood. While vinyl is surprisingly durable, with the current trends towards hard-surface flooring few choose it for a family or living room. We inherited vinyl tile flooring in our living area and it made a good-looking, resilient covering for several years. Recommended brands–Armstrong, Tarkett.

Laminate is a hugely practical, popular flooring choice. Plank flooring comes in every colour, pattern and finish imaginable–your floor can look like bamboo, heritage oak or highly polished hardwood. Ceramic and cork are also available on a laminate tile tongue and groove backing for ease of installation. Durable, easy to clean, scratch and stain resistant, laminate can chip if heavy objects are dropped with a lot of force. Mop up spills right away–laminate does not do well in the wet. Recommended brands–Pergo, Laurentian, Armstrong, Wicanders.

Ceramic tile makes a beautiful, practical choice. Available in a variety of tile sizes for floors, detail work and backsplashes. Ceramic is breakable and it isn’t cushy underfoot–if you put it in the kitchen, use a non-slip mat in the standing area. Recommended brands–Casa Roma, Centura, Olympia Tile.

Hardwood is a classic flooring favourite. If you’re concerned about scratches and markings go with a harder hardwood–oak, maple, cherry or bamboo. Eventually all hardwoods will mark, but marks are a characterisitic of wood and floors can always be refinished. The variation in pattern and colour that natural hardwood provides is timeless. Recommended brands–Bruce, Laurentian.

Something green? Bamboo hardwood is harvested from the bark of the tree, which replenishes in about 5 years. It takes 23 years to replace a mature oak tree–and bamboo is 23% harder than oak.

Flooring that fits your room use and traffic patterns

What room are you updating with a new floor? How do you use the space and who uses it most? Does your family spend a lot of time there or is it a high-traffic, pass-through area? High-traffic pass-throughs show wear more quickly so invest in a quality floor cover with a good warranty. While there are no hard and fast rules, the following is a list of common choices by area:

Bathroom – vinyl, ceramic, laminate

Kitchen – vinyl, ceramic

Living Room – carpet, laminate, hardwood

Family Room/basement/games room – carpet, laminate, hardwood

Study – carpet, laminate, hardwood

Bedroom – carpet, laminate, hardwood

Hall – carpet, vinyl, laminate, hardwood

Entrances – ceramic, vinyl, laminate

Stairs – carpet, laminate, hardwood

There’s no accounting for taste

Taste is the indefinable element that often overrides every other consideration. Unless you’re moving, you’ll live with your choice for a long time so you’d better love it. Limit the number of people involved in making the final decision to two, and then figure out which options you both like. Be prepared: the person with more passion for style, color and fashion often sways the vote. In our household when we find something we both love we buy it–that’s why we’re finally trading in the vinyl tiles for bamboo hardwood! (That is, after the requisite paint and trim updates are complete. Yours truly is having too much fun painting out the old floor along with the walls!)

Marion Taylor is a writer and video-maker living on the shores of Mississippi Lake with her husband John. John owns and operates a retail flooring store; together they’ve combined skills and resources to create how-to-flooring videos. For information about their video on Installing Laminate Flooring click on the following link: http://www.taylorscustomflooring.com/laminate-video

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1. The Italian preposition “di” means “of” in English. It is used in many different ways as you can see below.

# To indicate possession:

Il libro di Marco – Marco’s book

La casa di Elisa – Elisa’s house

# To indicate what an object is made of:

La sedia di legno – The wooden chair

Un maglione di lana – A wool sweater

# To indicate origin (verb “essere” %2B di %2B name of the city):

Franco è di Palermo. – Franco is from Palermo.

Marisa è di Milano. – Marisa is from Milano.

# With certain verbs and adjectives:

Aver paura di qualcosa – To be afraid of something, to fear something

Vergognarsi di qualcosa – To be ashamed by something

# To indicate the part of the day in expressions like:

di giorno – by day

di sera – in the evening

d’estate – in summer

di notte – at night

di mattina – in the morning

di pomeriggio – in the afternoon

2. The Italian preposition “a” means “to” (indirect object and movement), “in”or “at”, indicating location:

Sto a casa. – I stay at home.

Vado a Roma. – I go to the Rome.

3. The Italian preposition “da” means “since”, “from” (to come from), “by” (passive verbs):

Da lunedì – since Monday

Vengo da Roma. – I come from Rome.

Ucciso da un fulmine – Killed by lightning

4. The Italian preposition “in” usually means “in” as in English, “at”, “on”:

Vivo in Scozia. – I live in Scotland.

Il pranzo è in tavola. – Lunch is on the table.

In fondo – at bottom

Learn Italian Through Songs Discover how you can learn and memorize basic Italian words without any difficulty.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Carlo_Callone

When planning and designing a new pergola one of the main construction considerations is selecting the type of roofing material you want for your pergola in line with your needs. There are a number of different types of roofing available including polycarbonate, colorbond steel, tiles and opening roofs.

The first point to consider when making your selection is that the more light you let in, the more heat comes in. The catch being of course, that you need more light in winter and less in summer. There are a few ways around this problem, firstly you can use a combination of polycarbonate and colorbond steel incorporating 2 or 3 sheets of polycarbonate inserts and having the rest of the pergola roof in colorbond steel. This will effectively still let the light in that you need and the pergola climate underneath will remain comfortably cool. Another alternative is to have colorbond steel on the west side of the pergola and polycarbonate sheeting on the other, if the pergola has a gable roof.

With the polycarbonates there are a number of different qualities and light/heat factors available. Some polycarbonates let more light in and others less heat. Within the Laserlite range, there are over 20 to choose from. Polycarbonate also comes in many profiles such as Greca, Roma, Trim deck and Multi-wall System.

If you have a larger budget then an opening roof may be ideal, in this instance you can control how much light and heat you let in. In winter you can get all the winter sun by angling the open blades towards the sun and in summer just close the roof off. In the event of rain whilst you are out, the rain sensor will automatically close the opening roof for you.

Another style of pergola roofing to consider is an insulated roof with polystyrene in the middle, a colorbond roof at the top and a stucco finish on the bottom. With excellent insulation properties this style of roofing is often used for cool rooms. Of all the pergola roof coverings this one will keep out the most heat. The only downside is that it’s extremely hard to install light panels into this type of roofing.

Depending on the type of materials and roof design of your pergola it’s often possible to change or reposition some of the roof sheets if your pergola is too dark or too hot.

Fortunately with the emerging trend of the sophisticated pergola in outdoor entertaining there are a large range of materials and colours in pergola roofing to enhance your existing facade and to compliment your entertaining style.

About the Author

Greg Jacobs

You might wonder how you could finance such a trip. You will want to check in with your college’s financial aid office to see if financial aid that you receive can be applied toward a study abroad in Italy program. Often times, this is the case.

You will then want to go online and look at several programs based in Italy. Study abroad programs vary as to time of year available, as well as classes available, so you will want to see what is offered that will apply to your degree program at home.

Programs vary, so it pays to check on all of the details before you sign up for any study abroad in Italy programs. Some programs are offered for English-speaking students, and this may make your transition to Italian study easier. Determining where you will stay while you study abroad in Italy is also important. Many times, accommodations are available on campus or nearby in apartments.

Least you think all of your time will be spent in the classroom, think again. You will have many opportunities in between studies to explore Italy. Study abroad programs often offer excursions off campus that allow you to see many of the sights for which this country is famous. Take a guided tour of the architecture of the famous cities, or enjoy a wine tasting and eat regional specialties while you are in this beautiful country.

One of the best aspects of study abroad in Italy programs is the multicultural nature of the setting. You will meet students and teachers from around the world, get to know them, and learn about other cultures. This is a valuable asset for resume building when you return home.

Anne is director, student services and study abroad in Italy, for EuroLearn. Their Italy study abroad program led to her experience growing in these studies.

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I say ‘modern’ with good reason. For much as we might bracket underfloor heating with the technology of today, it is amongst the oldest heating techniques we know of. We’ll leave the old-fashioned heap of burning wood aside from that assessment. The Romans, being among the most technically advanced cultures at the time, found themselves invading colder countries than they were used to. Acclimatised to the ripe indulgent stare of the sun back home, invading a dismal place like 1st century England brought much discomfort. Rome’s greatest minds thought long and hard to solve this problem.

By basically propping up their villas on large numbers of small columns, they created unseen space underfoot. Then, setting fires at specially designed apertures, the heat and smoke from the fires would heat the air. This continual warming from beneath kept the Romans snug as a bug in a rug despite predilection for cold clothes like togas and leather skirts whilst trying to bring theater to Wales.

Modern under floor heating is thankfully, a bit more up to date but uses the same idea. Heated elements under the floor – typically hot water pipes – circulate heat beneath your feet and thus make your home that bit less chilly.

A modern heating system has great advantages over other options. Most pertinently, most other sources of heat are generally mounted on the wall, like radiators, wall-heaters etc. Firstly, this means that they are raised off the floor. As heat rises, this means that your toes – which are susceptible to feeling the chill – never get the benefit. Secondly, much heat ends up heating the bricks instead of taking the chill out of the air. While your bricks are nice and warm you might be waiting an age to feel any warmth at all.

Luckily for the interested, installation is no longer a big engineering job. You can just ‘get a man in’, but also lots of self-installation tools that let the average Joe fit it themselves. So don’t fear the onset of winter chill – start looking into getting underfloor heating.

Erroll lives in Britain’s coldest house. Perishing even in summer thanks to its colossal brick stone walls, it plummets to approximately -67 with freezing regularity in the winter. Fortunately, he has tremendous underfloor heating systems installed, and consequently still has the use of all of his toes.

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Important Figures from Italy

Italy is much more than just a country of great food and art. There are also many other important aspects to the country shaped like a boot, including religion (Catholicism) and famous mathematic and scientific concepts. There are also many important figures from Italy, all of whom have made extreme impacts on their home country and the rest of the world. Without the many famous voices from Italy, our world would not be like it is today.

One of the most important figures from Italy is Marco Polo. This explorer was one of the first Westerners to travel the Silk Road, and he also visited Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire. Born in 1254, Polo traveled to Asia with his father, and wrote down his many different experiences in Il Millione (The Million, or The Travels of Marco Polo). He explained much of the differences between Europe and Asia, as well as bringing different spices and goods that were previously unknown back to his home country of Italy. Some skeptics believed that Polo may never have actually taken this trip, but it was never disproven. Marco Polo died in 1324.

Another of the important Italians is Andrea Bocelli. This well-known opera singer was born in Italy in 1958, and is not only a singer, but also a writer and a music producer. Born with congenital glaucoma, Bocelli was blinded in an accident at the age of 12, making his success even more remarkable. He is considered by some music lovers to be more of a pop singer than an opera singer, because of his considerable commercial success, but Bocelli considers himself an opera singer even if he doesn’t have the training.

A final look at the important figures from Italy brings us to Niccolo Pagnini. Born in1782, Pagnini was a famous Italian violinist, violist, guitarist and composer. He is generally known as one of the best violin virtuosos that the world has ever known, and his many classical compositions, including his most famous the Solo Caprice No. 24, have been played by many musicians. He died in 1840, after cancer of the larynx deteriorated his health until he was unable to speak.

There are many important figures from Italy, both those who were born in the country and those who were raised in Italy. Italians have made the world the place it is today, and without their influence, we would be an entirely different society.

Richard Monk is with Facts Monk – a site with facts about everything.

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Roman architects designed a central heating system called a hypocaust. The word, hypocaustum means “heat from below.” The raised floors were held up by short pillars and spaces beneath them and inside the walls were heated with the hot smoke and air from the fire chamber. Walls were fitted with ceramic box-shaped tiles that served as flues to channel the burned air and smoke to the outside, as well as to warm them. The more warmth needed, the closer to the hypocausts they were located.

It was a pretty expensive and labor-intensive method, so hypocausts were reserved for public baths and upper class villas. In about 25 B.C. Sergius Orata figured out how to cut down on the overhead by putting the male and female bathing rooms close to the hypocausts and right next door to each other.

Korean traditional architecture uses an Ondol. This underfloor heating method depends on direct heat transfer from a wood fire maintained underneath a thick floor made of masonry. From the central firebox or stove area, usually accessible from the kitchen or master bedroom, a system of horizontal channels spider out underneath the structure. A chimney on the opposite side of the building from the firebox ensures a decent draft system.

One of the Korean twists is that while traditional masonry is used for the channels and to support the thick floor, they added an additional layer of something impervious to smoke and fumes, such as layers of stone slabs, clay and oil paper. The system works well and is in used today in many of their buildings, notably in an orphanage.

When American missionaries discovered small children sleeping on pallets and babies sleeping in boxes on the floor, they went to great lengths to obtain thousands of cribs. Even after their arrival, the well-meaning folks were baffled to find the children were still sleeping on pallets and babies were still in boxes on the floor. Only after considerable questioning did they figure out that it was the best way to keep the little ones warm since the floors were warmed in the traditional manner.

Today’s furnaces and forced air ventilation systems provide the latest in safe, efficient central heating. Filters ensure that pollutants from the outside are kept at a minimum and the closed heat production part of the system either confines or eliminates any potentially toxic substances.

We’ve come a long way, but the level of comfort we enjoy today stands on the shoulders of some pretty smart cookies who lived a very long time ago.

Bardi Heating and Air conditioning specializes in Atlanta furnace repair and maintenance. They are a local, family owned company with a name you can trust. Bardi hvac technicians are equipped to handle repairs on any brand of equipment any time of day. To learn more their services please visit http://www.Bardi.com.

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If you have, chances are you know that today the highlight in the world of fashionis Italy. Just mention that something is Italian and everyone will know that,if you are talking about fashion, it belongs to the top of the line.

And everyone knows that for that very reason the best fashion designer schools are in Italy. But because there are so many good ones, how do people go about selecting the right one?

If you are thinking of traveling to Italy to attend one of the many schools of
fashion design, here are some tips that may help you decide which one will
best meet your needs.

1- School Background:

Some schools tend to focus on one or another area, and that is important
when making your selection. What field interests you the most? Are there any well
known designers in that field that have graduated from that school? How well
have other exalumnae fared after graduation? The school mission and goals are important aspects to understand, as they will inform you about what you should expect to achieve there, and what the school expects from its students.

2- Word of Mouth:

Besides learning about a school from their own publications, another way to
find out what it is truly like is to talk to graduates from that school, or others that have attended there. Find out what positive and negative experiences they had, and what they liked and disliked about it. Then consider what you have learned and weigh the pros and cons. Keep in mind that not all schools are made for everyone, and not everyone is cut out for all schools. Compare your own goals and interests with what you glean from others’ experiences.

3- Finances:

This will obviously be a determining factor in your selection process. Check
the fees carefully to ensure that all possibilities are covered. Are all the expenses listed, or are there any hidden fees? What about room and board? Do you have to find an apartment on your own, or does the school have anything available for students? Are the materials included? If not, will you
be able to afford the extras? Or can you work and study at the same time and,
if so, are there jobs readily available? Don’t be afraid to ask, for you do not
want to discover that you have unexpected costs once you are in Italy.

4- Entrance Requirements:

Most schools have a specific list of qualifications needed in order to be
admitted into their school. Be sure to review this list carefully; some find that
a checklist can be very helpful to ensure that nothing is missed. Gather
and send all the necessary documents together. This will save you and the
admissions officer time and additional expense. It will also allow you to
understand whether or not you do possess the required conditions, and
will allow you to concentrate on the schools where you are more apt to be
admitted.

If you have the appropriate qualifications, and are determined to get into
the Italian school of fashion design you have selected, the tips listed
above will certainly help you obtain your goal. It may not be easy to gain
admittance, but with clear and concise guidelines your dream of becoming a
renowned fashion designer may become a reality before you know it!

For more information on fashion design schools please visit [http://fashiondesign-school-info.com] a website which specializes in tips, advice and resources on fashion design schools [http://www.fashiondesign-school-info.com]

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